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Electronics is about transforming information into electrical signals and using the high-speed processing capabilities of electronics to perform tasks reliably, repeatedly, and fast. Electronic components and printed circuit boards form the basic parts of an electronic system.
While electronic components process information in form of electrical signals, a printed circuit board is the skeletal structure on which the electronic components are mounted and soldered to hold them together and provide pathways for information to flow between components through PCB traces.
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PCB traces are metal wires connected between components. These traces are usually copper strips and sometimes aluminum or silver. The material, on which the components and traces are placed, is made of insulator material (dielectric), typically fiberglass impregnated with resin. This dielectric material can be of various kinds depending on the application of the circuit board.
Over the last few decades&#; electronics technologies and product development have been growing and rapidly have become more and more complex. Knowledge of electronic components is essential to build successful electronic products.
This article gives an overview of the different types of electronic components. It focuses on the parameters to be considered while selecting an electronic component and gives details about standard sizes and shapes of components. These are essential while designing and manufacturing an electronic product. To learn about failures, read common errors encountered in discrete components.
Some of the most commonly used electronic components are resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, LEDs, transistors, crystals and oscillators, electromechanical components like relays and switches, ICs, and connectors. These components have leads/terminals and are available in specific standardized packages, that the designer can choose to suit his application. SMT (surface mount technology) and through-hole are the two types of mounting techniques used to place components on a PCB.
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Electronic devices can be divided into two major kinds: Passive and Active devices based on their functionality.
Generally, resistors, capacitors, inductors, are specified as passive devices.
The resistor is a passive electrical component whose function is to introduce resistance to the flow of electric current in an electrical circuit to limit the current. The magnitude of the opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of the resistor. A larger resistance value indicates a greater opposition to current flow. The resistance is measured in ohms (Ω), and its equation is as follows.
R=V/I
The voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) are related by Ohm&#;s law. i.e. V = IR. The higher the resistance R, the lower is the current I for a given voltage V across it. It is a linear device.
Resistors dissipate electrical energy given by P=I² R Watts or Joules/sec.
Resistors are made using different materials such as carbon film, metal film, etc. However, we will concentrate on the most common varieties and their attributes.
Resistors&#; values vary from milliohms to mega ohms and the tolerance of typical resistors varies from 1% to 5%. However, for precision resistor tolerance varies below 1% from 0.1% to 0.001% and hence they are more expensive and are used in analog circuits where precise/reference voltage is needed. Commonly used Resistor are available with maximum power rating of 1/8(0.125W), 1/4W (0.25W), 1/2W (0.5W), 1W, 5W. Based on the values and power ratings, SMD resistors are made in different sizes codes , , , , , . This also includes R-packs resistor network used for pull up /pull down for circuits interfaces.
Different types of resistors by size and form
Different types of resistors by application
Resistor selection parameters
While selecting any resistor in the circuit, the designer needs to consider the following parameters based on the application and real-estate available on the printed circuit board.
Resistor manufacturers: AVX, Rohm, Kemet, Vishay, Samsung, Panasonic TDK, Murata, etc.
The Capacitor is a passive electrical component, whose function is to store electrical energy and deliver it to the circuit when needed. The capacity of a capacitor to store electrical charge is known as the capacitance of that capacitor. It is denoted by (C). The unit of capacitance is Farad (F) and can range from, micro Farad (µF) 1x 10-6 F, Kilo pico Farad (KpF), or nano Farad (nF) 1x 10-9 F to pico Farad (pF) 1x 10-12 F. Typical values range from 1pF to uF.
The various uses of capacitors are:
Capacitor equation is given as follows;
C=Q/V
Where Q denotes charge and V denotes voltage across the capacitor and C denotes the capacitance.
Since current i=dq/dt i.e. rate of change of charge,
Hence, I = C dV/dt
Therefore, if the voltage across a capacitor is constant, there will be no current flow through the capacitor; and current will only flow across the capacitor if the voltage across it changing with time for example an AC voltage. That is why a capacitor blocks DC signals and allows only AC signals to pass through it when used in the series of the path of the signal.
The energy stored in a capacitor C which has been charged to voltage V is given by
E= 1/2 CV²; where V is in Volts and C in capacitance.
Though the ideal capacitor doesn&#;t offer resistance and inductance, however in a real capacitor it has a small amount of effective series resistance due to capacitor plates, dielectric material, and terminal leads. Higher ESR increases noise across the capacitor, decreasing filtering effectiveness hence ESR needs to be of smaller value.
A capacitor consists of two parallel plates (conductors) separated by a non-conductive region such as dielectric form a capacitor.
C= ε A/d
Where A is an area of the plate, d is spacing between two plates and ε is dielectric permittivity. The dielectric media can be of air, paper, ceramic, plastic, mica, glass, etc.
Capacitors fall into two categories &#; polarized and non-polarized.
Polarized capacitors can be given positive voltage in only one direction and placed on board in only one direction. Polarized capacitors are electrolytic and tantalum capacitors
Non-polarized is the ceramic capacitor, polyester capacitor, paper capacitor which does not have polarity and can be placed in any direction.
Capacitor selection parameters
While selecting a capacitor in any circuit users need to take care of the following parameters apart from the application/usage.
Manufacturers: AVX, Kemet, Vishay, Samsung, Panasonic TDK, Murata, etc.
The inductors (also called as a coil or choke) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores magnetic energy when an electric current is passed through it. It&#;s an insulated wire wound into a coil around a core of some material (air, iron, powdered iron, or ferrite material) in a spiral form.
The inductor is denoted by inductance &#;L&#; and the measuring unit is Henry (H). Inductors have values that typically range from 1 µH to mH.
When the time-varying current flows through an inductor, the magnetic field is created which induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) (voltage) in the inductor. Voltage V, across an inductor of inductance L, is given by:
V = L di/dt
That is, there is a voltage across the inductor only if the current through it is changing; DC produces no voltage through an inductor. In general, inductor blocks the AC and passes the DC.
The energy stored in an inductor with value &#;L&#; Henries is given by;
E = 1/2 Li² energy E is in Joules, and I is in ampere.
An ideal inductor has zero resistance and zero capacitance. However, real inductors have a small value resistance associated with the winding of the coil and whenever current flows through it, energy is lost in the form of heat.
Application of inductors
Types of inductors
Inductors are mainly classified depending on the core material used and operating frequency. The following are the different types of inductors and available in through-hole as well as SMD package based on the construction.
Inductor selection parameters
While selecting an inductor in any circuit user needs to take care of the following parameter apart from the application/usage.
Manufacturers: Murata, TDK, Bourns Inc., Abracon Electronics, AVX corporation, Schaffner, Signal Transformer, etc.
The diode is two terminal semiconductor devices that allow an electric current to pass in one direction while blocking it in the reverse direction. The diode is made up of a semiconductor device with P-type material and N-type material. Typical material used in a diode is silicon and germanium. They conduct when a minimum forward voltage (~ 0.7V for Silicon) is applied across it and remain off during reverse bias condition.
The diode symbol is represented as below and their physical packages.
Applications of diode:
Type of diodes:
Size of diode packages
Diodes are available in through-hole (DIP) and SMD versions.
E.g. DIP: DO214, SMA, TO- 220 with heatsink SMD , , SOD323, SOT23, TO-252, D2PAK,
Diode selection parameters
While selecting a diode in any circuit users need to take care of the following parameters apart from the application/usage.
Manufacturers: Rohm Semiconductor, Diodes Incorporated, On Semi, Vishay, etc.
The quartz crystal is made from a thin piece of quartz wafer. This wafer is made from silicon material. The wafer is tightly fitted and controlled between two parallel metalized surfaces which make an electrical connection. When an external voltage is applied to the plates, the crystal vibrates with a certain fundamental frequency which creates alternating waveform which swings between high and low levels. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect. Due to this property, they are used in electronic circuits along with active components to create stable clock input to the processor.
Crystal application
Crystal selection parameter
Manufacturers: NDK, Murata, Epson, ECS, CTS, Kyocera, etc.
A relay is an electromagnetic switch that opens and closes potential-free contacts. An electromechanical relay consists of an armature, coil, spring, and contacts. When the voltage is applied to a coil, it generates a magnetic field. This attracts the armature and causes a change in the open/closed state of the circuit. It is mainly used to control a high-powered circuit using a low power signal.
There are mainly two types of relays based on constructions &#; electromechanical (EMR) and solid-state (SSR) relays.
A solid-state relay has a photodiode at its input side and a switching device such as transistor/FET at its output side. When a specific voltage is applied at its input, photodiode conducts and triggers the base of the transistor to cause the switching. Due to its fast switching, miniaturized form factor, low voltage requirement, and eliminating the mechanical arching, electrical noise, and contact bounce, it&#;s widely used in applications compared to mechanical relay.
Different types of relay form
Relays are categorized based on the poles and throws such as SPDT, SPST, DPST, DPDT.
Application
Selection parameter for relay:
The basic electronic components that depend on an external power source for their operation are called active components. They can amplify signals and/or process signals. Some of the active components are transistor, integrated circuits ICs.
The transistor is a non-linear semiconductor three-terminal device. The transistor is considered to be one of the most important devices in the field of electronics. The transistor has transformed many aspects of man&#;s life. There are two main functions of transistors, to amplify input signals and to acts as solid-state switches. The transistor acts as a switch when operated either in saturation or cut-off region. Whereas it amplifies signals when used in the active region. It offers very high input resistance and very low output resistance.
Transistors are categorized into bipolar junction transistor and field effect transistor based on their construction.
Type of transistor:
Transistor symbol is represented as below.
The most popular and commonly used transistors are BC547, 2N. Given below are a few common transistor packages:
MOSFET
The MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor) transistor is a semiconductor device that is different than bipolar junction transistor in terms of construction though the applications remain the same as switching and amplifying. It has four terminals such as drain, gate, source, and body. The body is shorted with a source terminal. The gate is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal oxide. Due to which it offers very high resistance compared to BJT.
By controlling the gate voltage (VGS +ve/-ve) width of a channel along which charge carriers flow (electrons or holes) from source to drain can be controlled. The P-Channel MOSFET has a P-Channel region between the source and drain and for N-channel MOSFET has an N-channel region.
Advantages of MOSFET over BJT:
Application of transistors (BJT/FET)
Types of transistor packages
In terms of packaging BJT and MOSFET, transistors are available in through-hole (DIP) and SMD versions. e.g. DIP: TO-92, TO- 220 and SMD: SOT23, SOT223, TO-252, D2PAK.
Transistor selection parameters
While selecting a transistor in any circuit, the user needs to take care of the following parameters:
Manufacturers: Analog Devices, Rohm Semiconductor, Diodes Incorporated, On Semi, Texas Instrument, Panasonic, Infineon, Honeywell, etc.
An integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit built on a semiconductor wafer, usually made of silicon. On this wafer, there are millions of miniaturized transistors, resistors, and capacitors, which are connected by metal traces. The ICs are powered by an external power supply for their operations. ICs perform specific functions such as data processing and signal processing. The entire physical size of the IC wafer is extremely small compared to that of discrete circuits hence it is called a microchip or simply chips. Because of their small size, ICs have low power consumption.
Types of ICs
ICs are categorized as digital, analog, and mixed-signal ICs based on their circuit functionality.
Digital ICs
Digital ICs can be divided into further two categories for the sake of simplicity:
A microprocessor/microcontroller is an integrated circuit, which can process the digital data. For example, temperature sensor data can be read by a microprocessor and using its internal logic to perform control functions such as switching an air-conditioner ON or OFF. The ability to program a microprocessor gives it the flexibility to be used in a wide range of applications. Some of the applications are consumer electronics (microwave, washing machine, TV), industrial applications (motor control, process control), communication applications (wireless communication, telephony, satellite communication).
A microprocessor is a complex IC having an inbuilt central processing unit (CPU) consisting of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers, buffer memory, clock. The processor does not have inbuilt memory and needs to interface RAM and ROM externally. Applications: computers, laptops, servers, basically for high-end processing.
A microcontroller is an integrated circuit that has CPU, inbuilt memory, general-purpose IO&#;s, communication interface such as SPI, I2C, UART, ADC, DAC, PWM. Depending on the size of memory and interface microcontrollers are targeted for specific applications. Applications: Embedded devices such as washing machines, weighing scales, CNC machines, etc.
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Digital signal processing (DSP) controllers are a type of processor which are used in high-computing applications such as image processing, speech processing, video compression, etc.
Analog ICs
Operational amplifiers, differential amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, RF devices, ADCs, DACs.
Interfacing ICs &#; RS232 driver, ethernet, CAN bus drivers, buffers, and level converters.
Power ICs &#; Voltage regulators such as linear regulators, LDOs, switching regulators
Field programmable gate array &#; FPGA, mixed-signal FPGA
IC packages
IC&#;s are available in different packages and pin counts such as DIP and SMD. Below are some of the popular and widely used packages.
Package Package name and pin count Small outline package SOIC-8,12,14,16, 24 TSSOP Through-hole package DIP-8,12,14,16,24, Ball grid array BGA 44, 48&#; , etc. Flat package QFN , DFM 44 etc.Typical selection parameters
While selecting an IC in any circuit user need to consider about following parameters apart from the application/usage.
Digital ICs
Analog ICs
SMT device sizes
The component sizes of the selected SMT components are important while manufacturing the electronic product. The assembler should have the capability to assemble the small size components on the PCBs. The passive components such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors which have two leads are found in standard sizes as shown in the table below. The SMT component sizes are given in inches as well as metric systems. The most common sizes are in inches such as , , , etc.
The table below gives the packages of SMT two lead components and their sizes.
COMMON PASSIVE SMT PACKAGE CODE
SMD PACKAGE TYPEBasic electronic components are identified with their respective manufacturer part numbers (MPN). They are also identified by distributor/vendor part number (VPN).
Each basic electronic component has its datasheet which explains its performance, features, and specifications. For example, for a 100-ohm resistor:
Electronic component distributors are a key resource for supply chain management. They are a single-window source of components from where a designer can buy components directly rather than buying from an individual manufacturer. Distributors stock components from different manufacturers and provide a simple and efficient web portal interface for selecting and purchasing components.
Most widely known component distributor in the world are as follows:
A resistor is an electrical component that regulates the flow of current in an electronic circuit. Reducing the current flow and lowering the voltage in any specific portion of the circuit are the main functions of a resistor. The outer part of the resistor is glazed with insulating paint, and inside, it is made up of copper wires wound around a ceramic rod.
The carbon-composition resistor is the most common type in electronic devices in which fine grainy carbon such as graphite is hardened by mixing it with clay. The proportion of carbon to clay is altered accordingly; if the ratio of carbon to clay is higher, then the resistance will be lower. Another type is known as a wire-wound resistor, in which the element like nichrome wire is wound on an insulating form for manufacturing resistors. This type of resistor can handle higher currents compared to a carbon-composition resistor of a similar physical size.
Combination of Resistances
Resistors in Series Formula &#; Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + &#;&#;&#;.. + Rn
When the terminals of resistors are linked to the two same nodes, then the resistors are said to be in parallel. At their terminals, resistors in parallel share the same voltage.
Resistors in Parallel Formula &#; Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/ R3 + &#;&#;&#;&#; + 1/Rn
1) What happens to the current across each resistor, in a series connection?
a) Current increases
b) Current decreases
c) Current remains the same
d) First increases and then decreases
Correct Option: (c)
Explanation: The current passing through each of the resistors is the same when the resistors are linked in series, and the current is passed through them. The reason behind it is that the resistors are linked end to end, and thus, there is only one route for the current to flow through.
2) Which among the following combinations is not a series connection?
a) Domestic appliances
b) Resistance box
c) Decorative bulbs
d) Electric fuses
Correct Option: (a)
Explanation: In a house, the domestic appliances are connected in parallel combinations, not in series. The reason behind this arrangement is that each of the appliances can be independently switched on and off, which is important in a house&#;s wiring.
3) As compared to the smallest parallel resistor, the equivalent resistance is much smaller.
a) True
b) False
Correct Option: (a)
Explanation: The above statement is true because, in parallel combination, the overall equivalent resistance is: Rp = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3. Thus, according to this formula, the final value attained is less than the original value when the inverse of a resistance value is taken. So, as compared to the smallest parallel resistor, the overall equivalent resistance is much smaller.
4) Here are some statements about parallel combinations of resistors; pick the correct one out.
a) The current is the same across the resistors
b) Same resistance is offered by all resistors
c) Across each resistor, the potential difference is the same
d) As compared to the largest resistor, the overall equivalent resistance is higher
Correct Option: (c)
Explanation: The resistors are linked together at both ends in a parallel combination. Therefore, across the resistors, the potential difference will not change and thus, remains the same.
5) Two wires having their radii in ratio 6:3, but the same length and same material are combined in series. Calculate the total resistance of the combination where the resistance of the thicker wire is 18 ohms.
a) 54
b) 44
c) 22
d) 20
Correct Option: (a)
Explanation: The given ratio of radii = 6:3; R2/R1=6/3 &#; R2 = (2) R1
R1 = 18 ohms (given);
R2 = (2) × 18 = 36 ohms.
Therefore, R1 = 18 ohms and R2 = 36 ohms.
Since they are combined in series, the total resistance (R) = R1 + R2
= 18 + 36
= 54 ohms
Thus, the total resistance of the combination is 54 ohms.
6) In which among the following combinations batteries are generally installed or connected?
a) Parallel
b) Series
c) Both series and parallel
d) None of these
Correct Option: (b)
Explanation: Batteries are generally linked in series because the voltages add up in series combination.
7) The total resistance is superior to the largest resistance in the _____ circuit.
a) Parallel
b) Series
c) Both series and parallel
d) None of these
Correct Option: (b)
Explanation: The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of all the resistance in the circuit; hence the total resistance is superior to the largest resistance in the circuit.
8) The total resistance is lesser than the smallest resistance in the _____ circuit.
a) Parallel
b) Series
c) Both series and parallel
d) None of these
Correct Option: (a)
Explanation: The equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit is given by (1/sum of the reciprocals of all the resistances) in the circuit. Hence, in the circuit, it is less than the smallest resistance.
9) Which among the following variety of resistors are widely used as commercial resistors?
a) Ultrasonic resistor
b) Zinc resistor
c) Copper resistor
d) Wire-wound resistor
Correct Option: (d)
Explanation: Wire-wound resistors are made by winding the wires of alloys like manganin. Also, these are electrically reflexive components that limit current and are comparatively impervious to temperature.
10) What is a Resistor?
An electrical component that bounds or regulates the flow of current in an electronic circuit is a resistor. For an active device such as a transistor, the resistor can also be used to deliver a definite voltage.
1) What is a resistor?
2) What are the series and parallel combinations in resistors?
3) Define resistivity.
4) What is Ohm&#;s law?
5) What are the applications of resistors?
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